Georgia (Georgian Georgian is the native language of the Georgians and the official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus: საქართველო, IPA: [sɑkʰɑrtʰvɛlɔ] ( listen); English pronunciation: /ˈdʒɔrdʒə/ ( listen)) is a sovereign state A sovereign state is a political association with effective internal and external sovereignty over a geographic area and population which is not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. While in abstract terms a sovereign state can exist without being recognised by other sovereign states, unrecognised states will often find it hard to in the Caucasus The Caucasus or Caucas is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, including Europe's highest mountain (Mount Elbrus) region of Eurasia Eurasia is a large landmass covering about 52,990,000 km2 or about 10.6% of the Earth's surface (36.2% of the land area). Often considered a single continent, Eurasia comprises the traditional continents of Europe and Asia (with Eurasia being a portmanteau of the two), concepts which date back to classical antiquity and the borders for which are. Situated at the juncture of Eastern Europe Eastern Europe is a region lying in the Eastern part of Europe. The term is highly context-dependent and even volatile, as there are "almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region". A related UN paper adds that "every assessment of spatial identities is essentially a social and cultural construct& and Western Asia Western Asia, West Asia, Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia are terms that describe the westernmost portion of Asia. The terms are partly coterminous with the Middle East - which describes geographical position in relation to Western Europe rather than location within Asia. Due to this perceived Eurocentrism, international organizations such as,^[5] it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea The Black Sea is an inland sea bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects it to the Aegean Sea region of the Mediterranean. These waters, to the north by Russia Russia (pronounced /ˈrʌʃə/ ; Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya, pronounced [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, pronounced [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈraʦəjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal, to the south by Turkey Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country situated in the Anatolian peninsula, located in Western Asia, and Eastern Thrace, located in southeastern Europe. Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; and Armenia Armenia /ɑrˈmiːniə/ (Armenian: Հայաստան, transliterated : Hayastan, IPA: [hɑjɑsˈtɑn]), officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն, Hayastani Hanrapetut’yun, [hɑjɑstɑˈni hɑnɾɑpɛtuˈtʰjun]), is a landlocked mountainous country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Situated at the, and to the east by Azerbaijan Azerbaijan (pronounced /ˌæzərbaɪˈdʒɑːn/ az-ər-bye-JAHN; Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan Respublikası), is one of the six independent Turkic states in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to. Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 km² and its population is 4.385 million.

The history of Georgia can be traced back to the ancient kingdoms of Colchis In ancient geography, Colchis or Kolchis was an ancient kingdom and region in East Black Sea Coasts, which played an important role in the ethnic and cultural formation of the Laz , Mingrelians and Georgian nation and its related groups. The Kingdom of Colchis as an early contributed significantly to the development of medieval Georgian statehood and Iberia Iberia , also known as Iveria (Georgian: ივერია), was a name given by the ancient Greeks and Romans to the ancient Georgian kingdom of Kartli (4th century BC - 5th century AD), corresponding roughly to the eastern and southern parts of the present day Georgia. The term Caucasian Iberia (or Eastern Iberia) is used to distinguish it from, and it was one of the first countries to adopt Christianity Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. Christianity comprises three major branches: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy (which parted ways with Catholicism in 1054 A.D.) and Protestantism (which came into existence during the Protestant Reformation of the 16th, in the 4th century. Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David David IV "the Builder", also known as David II (1073 – January 24, 1125), of the Bagrationi dynasty, was a king of Georgia from 1089 until his death in 1125 and Queen Tamar Tamar (c. 1160 – 18 January 1213), of the Bagrationi dynasty, was Queen Regnant of Georgia from 1184 to 1213. The first woman to rule Georgia in her own right, Tamar presided over the "Golden age" of the medieval Georgian monarchy in 11th and 12th century. At the beginning of the 19th century, Georgia was annexed by the Russian Empire The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia, and the predecessor of the Soviet Union. It was the second largest contiguous empire in world history, surpassed only by the Mongol Empire, and the third largest empire behind the British Empire and the Mongol.^[6] After a brief period of independence The Democratic Republic of Georgia , 1918–1921, was the first modern establishment of a Republic of Georgia following the Russian Revolution of 1917 The Russian Revolution is the collective term for the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. In the first revolution of February 1917 , the Tsar was deposed and replaced by a Provisional government. In the second revolution, during October, the Provisional, Georgia was invaded The Red Army invasion of Georgia also known as the Soviet—Georgian War or the Soviet invasion of Georgia was a military campaign by the Soviet Russian (RSFSR) Red Army against the Democratic Republic of Georgia (DRG) aimed at overthrowing the local Social-Democratic (Menshevik) government and installing the Bolshevik regime in the country. The by Bolshevik The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists (Russian: большевики, большевик Russian pronunciation: [bəlʲʂɨˈvʲik], derived from bol'shinstvo, "majority", which comes from bol'she, "more", the comparative form of bol'shoi, "big") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour armies in 1921 and incorporated into the Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик (help·info), tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, IPA [sɐˈjʊs sɐˈvʲeʦkʲɪx səʦɪ in 1922.

The independence of Georgia was restored in 1991. Like many post-communist Post-Communism is a name sometimes given to the period of political and economic transformation or "transition" in former Communist states located in parts of Europe and Asia, in which new governments aimed to create free market-oriented capitalist economies with some form of parliamentary democracy countries, Georgia suffered from the economic crisis and civil unrest The Georgian Civil War consisted of inter-ethnic and intranational conflicts in the regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia (1992-1993), as well as the violent military coup d'etat of December 21, 1991 - January 6, 1992 against the first democratically elected President of Georgia, Zviad Gamsakhurdia and his subsequent uprising in an attempt to during the 1990s. After the Rose Revolution The "Revolution of Roses" (Georgian: ვარდების რევოლუცია - vardebis revolutsia) was a change of power in Georgia in November 2003, which took place after widespread protests over the disputed parliamentary elections. As a result, President Eduard Shevardnadze was forced to resign on November 23, 2003, the new political leadership introduced democratic reforms^[7] but the foreign investment and economic growth which followed initially have slackened substantially since.^[3]

Georgia's constitution is that of a representative democracy Representative democracy is a form of government founded on the principle of elected individuals representing the people, as opposed to autocracy and direct democracy (though Freedom House Freedom House is a international non-governmental organization based in Washington, D.C. that conducts research and advocacy on its conceptions of democracy, political freedom and human rights. It publishes an annual report assessing the degree of perceived democratic freedoms in each country, which is used in political science research has stated that the country is "not an elective democracy" ^[8] — a claim disputed by the Georgian authorities), organized as a unitary A unitary state is a sovereign state governed as one single unit in which the central government is supreme and any administrative divisions exercise only powers that the central government chooses to delegate. Many states in the world have a unitary system of government, semi-presidential The semi-presidential system, also known as the presidential-parliamentary system, or premier-presidential system, is a system of government in which a president and a prime minister are both active participants in the day-to-day administration of the state. It differs from a parliamentary republic in that it has a popularly elected head of state republic A republic is a form of government in which at least a part of its people have some element of formal control over its government,, and in which the head of state is not a monarch The word "republic" is derived from the Latin phrase res publica, which can be translated as "a public affair". It is currently a member of the United Nations The United Nations Organization or simply United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of, the Council of Europe The Council of Europe is one of the oldest international organisations working towards European integration, having been founded in 1949. It has a particular emphasis on legal standards, human rights, democratic development, the rule of law and cultural co-operation. It has 47 member states with some 800 million citizens. It is distinct from the, the World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization is an international organization designed by its founders to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1947, the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation On 25 June 1992, the Heads of State and Government of eleven countries signed in Istanbul the Summit Declaration and the Bosporus Statement giving birth to the Black Sea Economic Cooperation . It came into existence as a model of multilateral political and economic initiative aimed at fostering interaction and harmony among the Member States, as, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe is the world's largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control, human rights, freedom of the press and fair elections. Most of its 3,500-plus staff are engaged in field operations, with only around 10% in its headquarters (OSCE), the Community of Democratic Choice The Community of Democratic Choice is an intergovernmental organization established on December 2, 2005 by nine states of Northern and Eastern Europe in Kiev. It was mainly signed by countries from the region between the Baltic, Black Sea and Caspian Sea . Its main task is to promote democracy, human rights and the rule of law in that region, the GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development The GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development is a regional organization of four post-Soviet states: Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova, and the Asian Development Bank The Asian Development Bank is a regional development bank established in 1966 to promote economic and social development in Asian and Pacific countries through loans and technical assistance. It is a multilateral development financial institution owned by 67 members (as of 2 February 2007), 48 from the region and 19 from other parts of the globe. The country aspires to join NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO (pronounced /ˈneɪtoʊ/, NAY-toe; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord ), also called the "(North) Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The NATO headquarters are in Brussels, and the European Union The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 member states which are located primarily in Europe. Committed to regional integration, the EU was established by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1993 upon the foundations of the European Communities. With over 500 million citizens, the EU combined generated an estimated 28% share (US$ 16.5. As an OSCE participating State, Georgia’s international commitments are subject to monitoring under the mandate of the U.S. Helsinki Commission.^[9]

In August 2008, Georgia engaged in an armed conflict South Ossetia: 162 according to Russia, 365 according to South Ossetia with Russia and separatist groups from South Ossetia South Ossetia is a disputed region and partly recognized state in the South Caucasus, located in the territory of the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast within the former Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic. In the aftermath of the war, Russia recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia are two disputed regions in the Caucasus with de facto independence as the Republic of Abkhazia and the Republic of South Ossetia, respectively. The two republics each claim to be sovereign states deserving of full international recognition and recognise each other as independent states. Georgia and the vast majority of South Ossetia South Ossetia is a disputed region and partly recognized state in the South Caucasus, located in the territory of the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast within the former Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and Abkhazia Abkhazia is a political entity on the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the south-western flank of the Caucasus whose status is disputed. It considers itself an independent state (the Republic of Abkhazia). This is recognised by Russia, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Nauru, South Ossetia and Transnistria (the last two are entities with a limited as independent states, but at present only Nauru Coordinates: 0°31′38″S 166°56′12″E / 0.527288°S 166.936724°E Nauru (pronounced /nɑːˈʊəruː/ nah-OO-roo), officially the Republic of Nauru and formerly known as Pleasant Island, is an island nation in Micronesia in the South Pacific. Its nearest neighbour is Banaba Island in Kiribati, 300 km to the east. Nauru is the world's, Nicaragua Nicaragua (pronounced /ˌnɪkəˈrɑːɡwə/ nik-ə-RAH-gwə) officially the Republic of Nicaragua (Spanish: República de Nicaragua, pronounced [reˈpuβlika ðe nikaˈɾaɣwa] ( listen)), is a representative democratic republic. It is the largest country in Central America with an area of 130,373 km2. The country is bordered by Honduras to the, the de facto independent republic of Transnistria Transnistria, also known as Trans-Dniestr or Transdniestria is a breakaway territory located mostly in a strip between the Dniester River and the eastern Moldovan border to Ukraine. It is generally recognised internationally as being de jure in Eastern Moldova as the autonomous region Stînga Nistrului ("Left Dnestr bank"). Since its, and Venezuela Venezuela (pronounced /ˌvɛnɨˈzweɪlə/ ; Spanish: [beneˈswela]), officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish: República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It is a continental mainland with numerous islands located off its coastline in the Caribbean Sea. The republic is have followed suit.^[10][11] On August 28, 2008, the Parliament of Georgia Parliament of Georgia is the supreme legislature of Georgia passed a resolution declaring Abkhazia and South Ossetia "Russian-occupied territories".^[12][13]

Contents 1 Etymology and people 2 History 2.1 Early Georgian States of Colchis and Iberia 2.2 Middle Ages 2.3 Georgia in the Russian Empire 2.4 Declaration of independence 2.5 Georgia in the Soviet Union 2.6 Georgia after restoration of independence 2.7 2008 military conflict with Russia 3 Culture 3.1 Architecture and arts 4 Geography and climate 4.1 Topography 4.2 Fauna 4.3 Climate 5 Regions 5.1 Main cities 5.2 Regions 5.3 Autonomous republics 6 Government and politics 7 Foreign relations 8 Military 9 Economy 10 Demographics 11 Society 11.1 Cuisine 11.2 Education 11.3 Religion 11.4 Sports 12 Gallery of Georgia 13 International rankings 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 17 Further reading 18 External links

Etymology and people

Main article: Name of Georgia St George patron saint of Georgia. According to some the country is called Georgia because the Georgians especially revere Saint George. 15th century cloisonné enamel on gold. (National Art Museum of Georgia)

Ethnic Georgians call themselves Kartvelebi (ქართველები), their land Sakartvelo (საქართველო - meaning "a place for Kartvelians"), and their language Kartuli (ქართული). According to the ancient Georgian Chronicles, the ancestor of the Kartvelian people was Kartlos, the great grandson of the Biblical Japheth.

The name Sakartvelo (საქართველო) consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i (ქართველ-ი), specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli – Iberia of the Classical and Byzantine sources.

Ancient Greeks (Strabo, Herodotus, Plutarch, Homer, etc.) and Romans (Titus Livius, Cornelius Tacitus, etc.) referred to early eastern Georgians as Iberians (Iberoi in some Greek sources) and western Georgians as Colchians.^[14]

Like most native Caucasian peoples, the Georgians do not fit into any of the main ethnic categories of Europe and Asia. The Georgian language, the most pervasive of the South Caucasian languages, is neither Indo-European, Turkic nor Semitic. The present day Georgian or Kartvelian nation no doubt results from the fusion of aboriginal, autochthonous-inhabitants with immigrants who infiltrated into Transcaucasia from the direction of Anatolia in remote antiquity.^[15] The ancient Jewish chronicle by Josephus mentions Georgians as Iberes who were also called Thobel [Tubal].^[16]

The terms Georgia and Georgians appeared in Western Europe in numerous early medieval annals. The French chronicler Jacques de Vitry and the English traveler Sir John Mandeville wrote that Georgians are called Georgian because they especially revere Saint George. Notably, in January 2004 the country adopted the five-cross flag, featuring the Saint George's Cross; it has been argued that the flag was used in Georgia from the 5th century throughout the Middle Ages.^[17][18]

History

Main article: History of Georgia (country)

Early Georgian States of Colchis and Iberia

Bedia Cup of King Bagrat III of Georgia, 999 AD Ancient Georgian States of Colchis and Iberia

The territory of modern-day Georgia has been continuously inhabited since the early Stone Age. The classic period saw the rise of the early Georgian states of Colchis and Iberia. The proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC.^[19] Archaeological finds and references in ancient sources reveal elements of early political and state formations characterized by advanced metallurgy and goldsmith techniques that date back to the 7th century BC and beyond.^[20] In the 4th century BC a unified kingdom of Georgia - an early example of advanced state organization under one king and the hierarchy of aristocracy, was established.^[21]

Iberian King Mirian III established Christianity in Georgia as the official state religion in AD 327.

The two early Georgian kingdoms of late antiquity, known to ancient Greeks and Romans as Iberia (Georgian: იბერია) (in the east of the country) and Colchis (Georgian: კოლხეთი) (in the west), were among the first nations in the region to adopt Christianity (in AD 337, or in AD 319 as recent research suggests). In Greek Mythology, Colchis was the location of the Golden Fleece sought by Jason and the Argonauts in Apollonius Rhodius' epic tale Argonautica. The incorporation of the Golden Fleece into the myth may have derived from the local practice of using fleeces to sift gold dust from rivers. In the last centuries of the pre-Christian era, the area, in the form of the kingdom of Kartli-Iberia, was strongly influenced by Greece to the west and Persia to the east.^[22]

After the Roman Empire completed its conquest of the Caucasus region in 66 BC, the kingdom was a Roman client state and ally for nearly 400 years.^[22] Christianity was declared the state religion by King Mirian III as early as 327 AD, which gave a great stimulus to the development of literature, arts and the unification of the country. Being at the crossroads of Christianity and Islam, Georgia experienced the dynamic exchange between these two worlds which culminated in a cultural renaissance from 11th to 13th century.^[23] In AD 330, King Mirian III's acceptance of Christianity ultimately tied the kingdom to the neighboring Byzantine Empire, which exerted a strong cultural influence for several centuries.^[22]

King David the Builder, Shio-Mgvime monastery

Known to its natives as Egrisi or Lazica, Colchis was often the battlefield and buffer-zone between the rival powers of Persia and Byzantine Empire, with the control of the region shifting hands back and forth several times. The early kingdoms disintegrated into various feudal regions by the early Middle Ages. This made it easy for Arabs to conquer Georgia in the 7th century. The rebellious regions were liberated and united into a unified Georgian Kingdom at the beginning of the 11th century. Starting in the 12th century, the rule of Georgia extended over a significant part of the Southern Caucasus, including the northeastern parts and almost the entire northern coast of what is now Turkey.

Although Arabs captured the capital city of Tbilisi in AD 645, Kartli-Iberia retained considerable independence under local Arab rulers.^[22] In AD 813, the prince Ashot I also known as Ashot Kurapalat became the first of the Bagrationi family to rule the kingdom: Ashot's reign began a period of nearly 1,000 years during which the Bagrationi, as the house was known, ruled at least part of what is now the republic.

Western and eastern Georgia were united under Bagrat V (r. 1027-72). In the next century, David IV (called the Builder, r. 1089-1125) initiated the Georgian golden age by driving the Seljuk Turks from the country and expanding Georgian cultural and political influence southward into Armenia and eastward to the Caspian Sea.^[22]

Middle Ages

Queen Tamar and her father King George III (restored fresco from the Betania monastery) Queen Tamar as depicted on a mural from the Vardzia monastery Kingdom of Georgia at peak of its military dominance, 1184-1225

The Georgian Kingdom reached its zenith in the 12th to early 13th centuries. This period has been widely termed as Georgia's Golden Age or Georgian Renaissance during the reign of David the Builder and Queen Tamar.^[24] This early Georgian renaissance, which preceded its European analogue, was characterized by the flourishing of romantic- chivalric tradition, breakthroughs in philosophy, and an array of political innovations in society and state organization, including religious and ethnic tolerance.^[25]

The Golden age of Georgia left a legacy of great cathedrals, romantic poetry and literature, and the epic poem "The Knight in the Panther's Skin".^[26] David the Builder is popularly considered to be the greatest and most successful Georgian ruler in history, he succeeded in driving the Seljuks out of the country, winning the major Battle of Didgori in 1121. His reforms of the army and administration enabled him to reunite the country and bring most Caucasian lands under Georgia’s control.

Gelati Monastery fresco of King David, 10th century

David Builder's grand daughter Tamar was successful in neutralizing this opposition and embarked on an energetic foreign policy aided by the downfall of the rival powers of the Seljuqids and Byzantium. Supported by a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated the Caucasus until its collapse under the Mongol attacks within two decades after Tamar's death.

The revival of the Georgian Kingdom was short-lived however, in 1226 Tblisi was captured by Mingburnu and the Kingdom was eventually subjugated by the Mongols in 1236 (see Mongol invasions of Georgia). Thereafter, different local rulers fought for their independence from central Georgian rule, until the total disintegration of the Kingdom in the 15th century. Georgia was subjected, between 1386 and 1404, to several disastrous invasions by Timur. Neighbouring kingdoms exploited the situation and from the 16th century, the Persian Empire and the Ottoman Empire subjugated the eastern and western regions of Georgia, respectively.

The rulers of regions which remained partly autonomous organized rebellions on various occasions. Subsequent Persian and Ottoman invasions further weakened local kingdoms and regions. As a result of wars the population of Georgia was reduced to 250,000 inhabitants at one point. Eastern Georgia, composed of the kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti, had been under the Persian suzerainty since 1555. However, with the death of Nader Shah "The Persian Napoleon" in 1747, both kingdoms broke free of the Persian control and were reunified through a personal union under the energetic king Heraclius II in 1762.

Georgia in the Russian Empire

Main article: Georgia under the Russian Empire King George XI the last Catholic King of eastern Georgia Luarsab II, King of Eastern Georgia, martyred by Persians in 1622

In 1783, Russia and the eastern Georgian Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, according to which Kartli-Kakheti received protection by Russia. Despite Russia's commitment to defend Georgia, it rendered no assistance when the Turks and Persians invaded in 1785 and again in 1795 completely devastated Tbilisi and massacred its inhabitants. This period culminated in the 1801 Russian violation of Treaty of Georgievsk and annexation of entire Georgian lands, followed the deposing of the Bagrationi dynasty and suppression of the Georgian church.

Prince Ilia Chavchavadze, leader of the Georgian national revival in 1860s

On December 22, 1800, Tsar Paul I of Russia, at the alleged request of the Georgian King George XII, signed the proclamation on the incorporation of Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) within the Russian Empire, which was finalized by a decree on January 8, 1801,^[27][28] and confirmed by Tsar Alexander I on September 12, 1801.^[29][30] The Georgian envoy in Saint Petersburg reacted with a note of protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor Prince Kurakin.^[31] In May 1801, Russian General Carl Heinrich Knorring dethroned the Georgian heir to the throne David Batonishvili and instituted a government headed by General Ivan Petrovich Lasarev.^[32] Pyotr Bagration, a man of minor Georgian nobility, joined the Russian army aged 17 as a sergeant and rose to be a general by the Napoleonic wars.

The Georgian nobility did not accept the decree until April 1802 when General Knorring compassed the nobility in Tbilisi's Sioni Cathedral and forced them to take an oath on the Imperial Crown of Russia. Those who disagreed were arrested temporarily.^[33]

In the summer of 1805, Russian troops on the Askerani River near Zagam defeated the Persian army and saved Tbilisi from conquest.

Western Georgian principalities of Mingrelia and Guria assumed the Russian protection in 1800s. Finally in 1810, after a brief war,^[34] the western Georgian kingdom of Imereti was annexed by Tsar Alexander I of Russia. The last Imeretian king and the last Georgian Bagrationi ruler Solomon II died in exile in 1815. From 1803 to 1878, as a result of numerous Russian wars against Turkey and Iran, several territories were annexed to Georgia. These areas (Batumi, Akhaltsikhe, Poti, and Abkhazia) now represent a large part of the territory of Georgia. The principality of Guria was abolished in 1828, and that of Samegrelo (Mingrelia) in 1857. The region of Svaneti was gradually annexed in 1857–59.

Declaration of independence

Main article: Democratic Republic of Georgia Declaration of independence by the Georgian parliament, 1918

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Georgia declared independence on May 26, 1918 in the midst of the Russian Civil War. The parliamentary election was won by the Georgian Social-Democratic Party, considered to be pro-Mensheviks, and its leader, Noe Zhordania, became prime minister.

In 1918 a Georgian–Armenian war erupted over parts of Georgian provinces populated mostly by Armenians which ended because of British intervention. In 1918–19 Georgian general Giorgi Mazniashvili led a Georgian attack against the White Army led by Moiseev and Denikin in order to claim the Black Sea coastline from Tuapse to Sochi and Adler for independent Georgia. The country's independence did not last long, however. Georgia was under British protection from 1918-1920.

Georgia in the Soviet Union

Main article: Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic Soviet Invasion In Georgia (Feb. 26. - Mar. 13) 1921 Prince Kakutsa Cholokashvili, leader of the anti-Bolshevik uprising in August of 1924, venerated as national hero of Georgia The 11th Red Army of the Russian SFSR holds military parade in Tbilisi, 25 February 1921.

In February 1921 Georgia was attacked by the Red Army. The Georgian army was defeated and the Social-Democrat government fled the country. On February 25, 1921 the Red Army entered capital Tbilisi and installed a Moscow directed communist government, led by Georgian Bolshevik Filipp Makharadze.

Nevertheless the Soviet rule was firmly established only after a 1924 revolt was brutally suppressed. Georgia was incorporated into the Transcaucasian SFSR uniting Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. The TSFSR was disaggregated into its component elements in 1936 and Georgia became the Georgian SSR.

Joseph Stalin (an ethnic Georgian whose real name was Ioseb Jughashvili) was prominent among the Bolsheviks, who came to power in the Russian Empire after the October Revolution in 1917. Stalin was to rise to the highest position of the Soviet state.

From 1941 to 1945, during World War II, almost 700,000 Georgians fought in the Red Army against Nazi Germany. (A number also fought on the German side.) About 350,000 Georgians died in the battlefields of the Eastern Front.^[35]

The Dissidential movement for restoration of Georgian statehood started to gain popularity in the 1960s.^[36] Among the Georgian dissidents, two of the most prominent activists were Merab Kostava and Zviad Gamsakhurdia. Dissidents were heavily persecuted by Soviet government, and their activities were harshly suppressed.

On April 9, 1989, a peaceful demonstration in the Georgian capital Tbilisi ended in a massacre in which several people were killed by Soviet troops. Before the October 1990 elections to the national assembly, the Umaghlesi Sabcho (Supreme Council) — the first polls in the USSR held on a formal multi-party basis — the political landscape was reshaped again. While the more radical groups boycotted the elections and convened an alternative forum with alleged support of Moscow^{[citation needed]} (National Congress), another part of the anticommunist opposition united into the Round Table—Free Georgia (RT-FG) around the former dissidents like Merab Kostava and Zviad Gamsakhurdia.

The latter won the elections by a clear margin, with 155 out of 250 parliamentary seats, whereas the ruling Communist Party (CP) received only 64 seats. All other parties failed to get over the 5%-threshold and were thus allotted only some single-member constituency seats.

Georgia after restoration of independence

Leaders of Georgian independence movement in late 80s, Zviad Gamsakhurdia (left) and Merab Kostava (right) Merab Kostava, famous dissident and a leader of the independence movement of Georgia in 1988-89 Photos of the April 9, 1989 Massacre victims (mostly young women) on billboard in Tbilisi Georgian woman at the memorial of April 9 tragedy

On April 9, 1991, shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Georgia declared independence. On May 26, 1991, Zviad Gamsakhurdia was elected as a first President of independent Georgia. Gamsakhurdia stoked Georgian nationalism and vowed to assert Tbilisi's authority over regions such as Abkhazia and South Ossetia that had been classified as autonomous oblasts under the Soviet Union.

However, he was soon deposed in a bloody coup d'état, from December 22, 1991 to January 6, 1992. The coup was instigated by part of the National Guards and a paramilitary organization called "Mkhedrioni" or "horsemen". The country became embroiled in a bitter civil war which lasted almost until 1995. Eduard Shevardnadze returned to Georgia in 1992 and joined the leaders of the coup — Kitovani and Ioseliani — to head a triumvirate called the "State Council".

In 1995, Shevardnadze was officially elected as president of Georgia. At the same time, simmering disputes within two regions of Georgia, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, between local separatists and the majority Georgian populations, erupted into widespread inter-ethnic violence and wars. Supported by Russia, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, with the exception of some "pockets" of territory, achieved de facto independence from Georgia.

Roughly 230,000 to 250,000 Georgians^[37] were expelled from Abkhazia by Abkhaz separatists and North Caucasians volunteers (including Chechens) in 1992-1993. Around 23,000 Georgians^[38] fled South Ossetia as well, and many Ossetian families were forced to abandon their homes in the Borjomi region and move to Russia.

In 2003, Shevardnadze (who won reelection in 2000) was deposed by the Rose Revolution, after Georgian opposition and international monitors asserted that the November 2 parliamentary elections were marred by fraud.^[39] The revolution was led by Mikheil Saakashvili, Zurab Zhvania and Nino Burjanadze, former members and leaders of Shevardnadze's ruling party. Mikheil Saakashvili was elected as President of Georgia in 2004.

Following the Rose Revolution, a series of reforms was launched to strengthen the country's military and economic capabilities. The new government's efforts to reassert Georgian authority in the southwestern autonomous republic of Ajaria led to a major crisis early in 2004. Success in Ajaria encouraged Saakashvili to intensify his efforts, but without success, in the breakaway South Ossetia.

These events along with accusations of Georgian involvement in the Second Chechen War,^[40] resulted in a severe deterioration of relations with Russia, fuelled also by Russia's open assistance and support to the two secessionists areas. Despite these increasingly difficult relations, in May 2005 Georgia and Russia reached a bilateral agreement ^[41] by which Russian military bases (dating back to the Soviet era) in Batumi and Akhalkalaki were withdrawn. Russia fulfilled the terms, withdrawing all personnel and equipment from these sites by December 2007, ahead of schedule.^[42]

2008 military conflict with Russia

Main article: 2008 South Ossetia war See also: International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia USA Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice on a joint press conference with Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili during the South Ossetian war Georgian girl holding a poster and candles during the Russian-Georgian war in August of 2008. Georgians regard this war as invasion and occupation of their country by Russian army, unlike Ossetian and Abkhaz people who see Russia as a liberator

2008 saw the military conflict between Georgia on one side, and Russia, separatist republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia on the other. Both Georgia and Russia had amassed larger military forces near their respective borders with South Ossetia. After the Georgian bombing of the South Ossetian capital, Tskhinvali in the late evening of August 7, Georgian armed forces began pushing into South Ossetia, supported by their artillery and multiple rocket launcher fire.^[43] A three-day battle left the city of Tskhinvali heavily devastated.^[44][45][46] The South Ossetian and Russian officials claimed^[45] the Georgian army was responsible for killing 2,100 South Ossetian civilians. However, these allegations have not been substantiated, and Human Rights Watch and European Union investigators in South Ossetia accused Russia of exaggerating the scale of such casualties.^[47] Actual death toll, according to Russian Prosecutor Office, is 162^[48]. Russian peacekeepers base stationed in South Ossetia was shelled and the personnel was killed^[49][50].

At dawn of August 8 forces of the Russian 58th Army entered South Ossetia through the Russian-controlled Roki tunnel, and the Russian air-force launched a series of coordinated air strikes against multiple targets within Georgian territory.^[51] As Russia and Georgia both sent troops into South Ossetia, the conflict between Georgia on the one side and Russia, Ossetian, and later, Abkhazian separatists on the other quickly escalated into the full scale 2008 war. Because of the intensive fighting in South Ossetia there were many disputed reports about the number of casualties on both sides, which targets had fallen under aerial attacks, the status of troop movements, and the most current location of the front line between the Georgian and Russian-Ossetian combat units.^[52]

After a few days of heavy fighting Georgian troops were driven from South Ossetia, and Russian forces advanced from South Ossetia into undisputed Georgia territory, occupying the cities of Gori and Poti. Irregulars such as Ossetians, Chechens and Cossacks followed and were reported looting, killing and burning.^[53][54] By August 11, another separatist republic of Abkhazia, opened a second front and seized additional territory in Western Georgia.^[55][56]

On August 12, President Medvedev announced an intent to halt further Russian military operations in Georgia.^[57] Russian troops withdrew from Gori and Poti, but remained in South Ossetia and Abkhazia^[58][59], which it recognizes as independent countries^[60]. Georgia, on a contrary, considers them territories under Russian occupation^[61][62].

Culture

Main article: Culture of Georgia Ancient Georgian Asomtavruli Alphabet in David Gareja Monastery Medieval Georgian Processional cross, 12th century St Luke and St John, an illumination from the title page of the Georgian Gospels, AD 897

Georgian culture evolved over thousands of years with its foundations in Iberian and Colchian civilizations,^[63] continuing into the rise of the unified Georgian Kingdom under the single monarchy of the Bagrationi. Georgian culture enjoyed a golden age and renaissance of classical literature, arts, philosophy, architecture and science in the 11th century.^[64]

The Georgian language, and the Classical Georgian literature of the poet Shota Rustaveli, were revived in the 19th century after a long period of turmoil, laying the foundations of the romantics and novelists of the modern era such as Grigol Orbeliani, Nikoloz Baratashvili, Ilia Chavchavadze, Akaki Tsereteli, Vazha Pshavela, and many others.^[65] Georgian culture was influenced by Classical Greece, the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, and later by the Russian Empire which contributed to the European elements of Georgian culture.

Georgia is well known for its rich folklore, unique traditional music, theatre, cinema, and art. Georgians are renowned for their love of music, dance, theatre and cinema. In the 20th century there have been notable Georgian painters such as Niko Pirosmani, Lado Gudiashvili, Elene Akhvlediani; ballet choreographers such as George Balanchine, Vakhtang Chabukiani, and Nino Ananiashvili; poets such as Galaktion Tabidze, Lado Asatiani, and Mukhran Machavariani; and theatre and film directors such as Robert Sturua, Tengiz Abuladze, Giorgi Danelia and Otar Ioseliani.^[65]

Architecture and arts

Wall Painting in Georgia's ancient Monastery, Shio-Mghvime

Georgian architecture has been influenced by many civilizations. There are several different architectural styles for castles, towers, fortifications and churches. The Upper Svaneti fortifications, and the castle town of Shatili in Khevsureti, are some of the finest examples of medieval Georgian castle architecture.

Georgian ecclesiastic art is one of the most fascinating aspects of Georgian Christian architecture, which combines classical dome style with original basilica style forming what is known as the Georgian cross-dome style. Cross-dome architecture developed in Georgia during the 9th century; before that, most Georgian churches were basilicas. Other examples of Georgian ecclesiastic architecture can be found outside Georgia: Bachkovo Monastery in Bulgaria (built in 1083 by the Georgian military commander Grigorii Bakuriani), Iviron monastery in Greece (built by Georgians in the 10th century), and the Monastery of the Cross in Jerusalem (built by Georgians in the 9th century).

Akaki Khorava State Theatre in Senaki, an example of neoclassicism style with elements of barocco in Georgia. Architect Vakhtang Gogoladze.

Other architectural aspects of Georgia include Rustaveli avenue in Tbilisi in the Hausmann style, and the Old Town District.

The art of Georgia spans the prehistoric, the ancient Greek, Roman, medieval, ecclesiastic, iconic and modern visual arts. One of the most famous late nineteenth/early twentieth century Georgian artists is the primitivist painter Niko Pirosmani.

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Georgia (country) See also: Borders of the continents and Glaciers of Georgia In Khazbegi mountains, Northern Georgia, Khokh Range Svaneti region, North-Western Georgia

Georgia is in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia, straddling Western Asia and Eastern Europe.^[5] Georgia's northern border with Russia roughly runs along the crest of the Greater Caucasus mountain range – a commonly reckoned boundary between Europe and Asia. In Philip Johan von Strahlenberg's 1730 definition of Europe, which was used by the Russian Tsars and which first set the Urals as the eastern border of the continent, the continental border was drawn from the Kuma-Manych Depression to the Caspian Sea, including Georgia (and the whole of the Caucasus) in Asia.

Mountains are the dominant geographic feature of Georgia. The Likhi Range divides the country into eastern and western halves. Historically, the western portion of Georgia was known as Colchis while the eastern plateau was called Iberia. Because of a complex geographic setting, mountains also isolate the northern region of Svaneti from the rest of Georgia.

The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range separates Georgia from the North Caucasian Republics of Russia. The main roads through the mountain range into Russian territory lead through the Roki Tunnel between South and North Ossetia and the Darial Gorge (in the Georgian region of Khevi). The Roki Tunnel was vital for the Russian military in the 2008 South Ossetia War.

The southern portion of the country is bounded by the Lesser Caucasus Mountains. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range is much higher in elevation than the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, with the highest peaks rising more than 5,000 meters (16,404 ft) above sea level.

The highest mountain in Georgia is Mount Shkhara at 5,201 meters (17,064 ft), and the second highest is Mount Janga (Jangi-Tau) at 5,051 meters (16,572 ft) above sea level. Other prominent peaks include Kazbegi (Kazbek) at 5,074 meters (16,647 ft), Tetnuldi (4,974 meters / 16,319 feet), Shota Rustaveli (4,960 meters / 16,273 feet), Mt. Ushba (4,710 meters / 15,453 feet), and Ailama (4,525 meters / 14,846 feet). Out of the abovementioned peaks, only Kazbegi is of volcanic origin. The region between Kazbegi and Shkhara (a distance of about 200 km (124 mi) along the Main Caucasus Range) is dominated by numerous glaciers. Out of the 2,100 glaciers that exist in the Caucasus today, approximately 30% are located within Georgia.

Northern Georgia, Kazbegi region. Shatili valley in the Khevsureti region.

The term, Lesser Caucasus Mountains is often used to describe the mountainous (highland) areas of southern Georgia that are connected to the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range by the Likhi Range. The area can be split into two separate sub-regions; the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, which run parallel to the Greater Caucasus Range, and the Southern Georgia Volcanic Highland, which lies immediately to the south of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains.

The overall region can be characterized as being made up of various, interconnected mountain ranges (largely of volcanic origin) and plateaus that do not exceed 3,400 meters (11,155 ft) in elevation. Prominent features of the area include the Javakheti Volcanic Plateau, lakes, including Tabatskuri and Paravani, as well as mineral water and hot springs. The Southern Georgia Volcanic Highland is a young and unstable geologic region with high seismic activity and has experienced some of the most significant earthquakes that have been recorded in Georgia.

The Voronya Cave (aka Krubera-Voronia Cave) is the deepest known cave in the world. It is located in the Arabika Massif of the Gagra Range, in Abkhazia. In 2001, a Russian–Ukrainian team had set the world depth record for a cave at 1,710 meters (5,610 ft). In 2004, the penetrated depth was increased on each of three expeditions, when a Ukrainian team crossed the 2,000-meter (6,562 ft) mark for the first time in the history of speleology. In October 2005, an unexplored part was found by the CAVEX team, further increasing the known depth of the cave. This expedition confirmed the known depth of the cave at 2,140 meters (7,021 ft) (±9 m/29.5 ft).

Two major rivers in Georgia are the Rioni and the Mtkvari.

Topography

The Aragvi River Gorge Alazani Valley in Kakheti region, Eastern Georgia

The landscape within the nation's boundaries is quite varied. Western Georgia's landscape ranges from low-land marsh-forests, swamps, and temperate rain forests to eternal snows and glaciers, while the eastern part of the country even contains a small segment of semi-arid plains characteristic of Central Asia. Forests cover around 40% of Georgia's territory while the alpine/subalpine zone accounts for roughly around 10% of the land.

Much of the natural habitat in the low-lying areas of Western Georgia has disappeared over the last 100 years because of the agricultural development of the land and urbanization. The large majority of the forests that covered the Colchis plain are now virtually non-existent with the exception of the regions that are included in the national parks and reserves (e.g. Paleostomi Lake area). At present, the forest cover generally remains outside of the low-lying areas and is mainly located along the foothills and the mountains. Western Georgia's forests consist mainly of deciduous trees below 600 meters (1,969 ft) above sea level and comprise of species such as oak, hornbeam, beech, elm, ash, and chestnut. Evergreen species such as box may also be found in many areas. Ca. 1000 of all 4000 higher plants of Georgia are endemic in this country.^[66]

The west-central slopes of the Meskheti Range in Ajaria as well as several locations in Samegrelo and Abkhazia are covered by temperate rain forests. Between 600–1,000 meters (1,969–3,281 ft) above sea level, the deciduous forest becomes mixed with both broad-leaf and coniferous species making up the plant life. The zone is made up mainly of beech, spruce, and fir forests. From 1,500–1,800 meters (4,921–5,906 ft), the forest becomes largely coniferous. The tree line generally ends at around 1,800 meters (5,906 ft) and the alpine zone takes over, which in most areas, extends up to an elevation of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft) above sea level. The eternal snow and glacier zone lies above the 3,000 meter line.

Eastern Georgia's landscape (referring to the territory east of the Likhi Range) is considerably different from that of the west. Although, much like the Colchis plain in the west, nearly all of the low-lying areas of eastern Georgia including the Mtkvari and Alazani River plains have been deforested for agricultural purposes. In addition, because of the region's relatively drier climate, some of the low-lying plains (especially in Kartli and south-eastern Kakheti) were never covered by forests in the first place.

The general landscape of eastern Georgia comprises numerous valleys and gorges that are separated by mountains. In contrast with western Georgia, nearly 85% of the forests of the region are deciduous. Coniferous forests only dominate in the Borjomi Gorge and in the extreme western areas. Out of the deciduous species of trees, beech, oak, and hornbeam dominate. Other deciduous species include several varieties of maple, aspen, ash, and hazelnut. The Upper Alazani River Valley contains yew forests.

At higher elevations above 1,000 meters (3,281 ft) above sea level (particularly in the Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Khevi regions), pine and birch forests dominate. In general, the forests in eastern Georgia occur between 500–2,000 meters (1,640–6,562 ft) above sea level, with the alpine zone extending from 2,000–2,300 meters/6,562–7,546 feet to 3,000–3,500 meters/9,843–11,483 feet. The only remaining large, low-land forests remain in the Alazani Valley of Kakheti. The eternal snow and glacier zone lies above the 3,500-meter (11,483 ft) line in most areas of eastern Georgia.

Fauna

Egyptian vulture flying over Shio-Mhvime Monastery in Georgia

Because of its high landscape diversity and low latitude Georgia is home to a large number of animal species, e. g. ca. 1000 species of vertebrates (330 birds, 160 fish, 48 reptiles, 11 amphibians). A number of large carnivores live in the forests, e. g. Persian leopard, Brown bear, wolf, and lynx. The species number of invertebrates is considered to be very high but data is distributed across a high number of publications. The spider checklist of Georgia, for example, includes 501 species.^[67] Non-marine molluscs of Georgia also include high diversity.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Georgia (country) The local climate is excellent for wine-making and there are 500 different kinds of wine in Georgia

The climate of Georgia is extremely diverse, considering the nation's small size. There are two main climatic zones, roughly separating Eastern and Western parts of the country. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range plays an important role in moderating Georgia's climate and protects the nation from the penetration of colder air masses from the north. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains partially protect the region from the influence of dry and hot air masses from the south as well.

Pomegranate in Georgia

Much of western Georgia lies within the northern periphery of the humid subtropical zone with annual precipitation ranging from 1,000–4,000 mm (39.4–157.5 in). The precipitation tends to be uniformly distributed throughout the year, although the rainfall can be particularly heavy during the Autumn months. The climate of the region varies significantly with elevation and while much of the lowland areas of western Georgia are relatively warm throughout the year, the foothills and mountainous areas (including both the Greater and Lesser Caucasus Mountains) experience cool, wet summers and snowy winters (snow cover often exceeds 2 meters in many regions). Ajaria is the wettest region of the Caucasus, where the Mt. Mtirala rainforest, east of Kobuleti receives around 4,500 mm (177.2 in) of precipitation per year.

Eastern Georgia has a transitional climate from humid subtropical to continental. The region's weather patterns are influenced both by dry, Central Asian/Caspian air masses from the east and humid, Black Sea air masses from the west. The penetration of humid air masses from the Black Sea is often blocked by several mountain ranges (Likhi and Meskheti) that separate the eastern and western parts of the nation. Annual precipitation is considerably less than that of western Georgia and ranges from 400–1,600 mm (15.7–63.0 in).

The wettest periods generally occur during Spring and Autumn while Winter and the Summer months tend to be the driest. Much of eastern Georgia experiences hot summers (especially in the low-lying areas) and relatively cold winters. As in the western parts of the nation, elevation plays an important role in eastern Georgia where climatic conditions above 1,500 meters (4,921 ft) are considerably colder than in the low-lying areas. The regions that lie above 2,000 meters (6,562 ft) frequently experience frost even during the summer months.

Regions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Georgia (country) Map of Georgia with the autonomous republics of Abkhazia (de facto independent) and Adjara, and South Ossetia (de facto independent region, officially termed Tskhinvali region by the Georgian authorities)

Georgia is divided into 9 regions and 2 autonomous republics. These in turn are subdivided into 69 districts.

Main cities

The main cities of Georgia include:

• Tbilisi 1,066,100 (metro area 1,270,800)
• Kutaisi 186,300
• Batumi 121,806
• Rustavi 116,384
• Zugdidi 75,550
• Gori 49,500
• Poti 47,150
• Akhaltsikhe, 46,134
• Sukhumi 43,700 (de facto part of Abkhazia)
• Samtredia 29,700
• Senaki 28,082
• Telavi 21,800

Regions

Regions of Georgia

• Abkhazia (autonomous republic)
• Adjara (autonomous republic)
• Guria
• Imereti
• Kakheti
• Kvemo Kartli
• Mtskheta-Mtianeti
• Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti
• Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti
• Samtskhe-Javakheti
• Shida Kartli

Autonomous republics

Main articles: Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia and Autonomous Republic of Adjara

Currently, the status of South Ossetia, an autonomous administrative district (also known as the Tskhinvali region), is being negotiated with the Russian-supported separatist government. Recently, these negotiations have broken down in light of Russia's decision to reinforce the region militarily and give Russian passports to South Ossetians. The government of Georgia has expressed that it views these moves as attempts by Russia to annex the region effectively.

The Georgian government levels the same criticism against Russian involvement in Abkhazia, another breakaway region; Abkhazia has the status of an autonomous republic, but operates as a de facto state. This condition follows the ethnic cleansing of at least 200,000 Georgians in the War in Abkhazia in 1992-1993. Adjara gained autonomy unilaterally under local strongman Aslan Abashidze with help from a Russian military brigade located on a base in Adjara. Current Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili restored the region to Georgian control after a local uprising against Abashidze's perceived corruption.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Georgia (country) Official Residence and Principal Workplace of the President of Georgia Parliament of Georgia

Georgia is a democratic semi-presidential republic, with the President as the head of state, and Prime Minister as the head of government.

The executive branch of power is made up of the President and the Cabinet of Georgia. The Cabinet is composed of ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, and appointed by the President. Notably, the ministers of defense and interior are not members of the Cabinet and are subordinated directly to the President of Georgia.

Mikheil Saakashvili is the current President of Georgia after winning 53.47% of the vote in the 2008 election. Lado Gurgenidze has been Prime Minister since November 22, 2007. On November 1, 2008, Gurgenidze was replaced by Grigol Mgaloblishvili and since February 6, 2009 Nikoloz Gilauri has been the new prime minister of Georgia.

Legislative authority is vested in the Parliament of Georgia. It is unicameral and has 150 members, known as deputies, from which 75 members are proportional representatives and 75 are elected through single-member district plurality system, representing their constituencies. Members of parliament are elected for 4 four-year term.

Five parties and electoral blocs had representatives elected to the parliament in the 2008 elections: the United National Movement (governing party), The Joint Opposition, the Christian-Democrats, the Labour Party and Republican Party.

Despite considerable progress made since the Rose revolution Georgia is still not a full-fledged democracy.^[68] Political system remains in the process of transition, with frequent adjustments to the balance of power between the President and Parliament, and proposals ranging from transforming the country into parliamentary republic to re-establishing the monarchy.^[69][70] Observers note the deficit of trust in relations between the Government and the opposition.^[71]

Different opinions exist regarding the degree of political freedom in Georgia. President Saakashvili believes that the country is essentially free,^[68] many opposition leaders claim that Georgia is a dictatorship, and Freedom House puts Georgia in the group of partly free countries, along with countries like Turkey, Venezuela and Bosnia.^[72]

Foreign relations

Main articles: Georgia and the European Union, Georgian-Ukrainian relations, Georgia-Russia relations, and Georgia and NATO George W. Bush with Mikheil Saakashvili pro-NATO poster in Tbilisi Georgian demonstrator holds his poster during the Russian invasion of Georgia in August of 2008

Georgia maintains good relations with its direct neighbours Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkey and participates actively in regional organizations, such as the Black Sea Economic Council and the GUAM.^[73] Georgia also maintains political, economic and military relations with Japan, Uruguay^[74], South Korea,^[75] Israel^[76], Sri Lanka^[77] Ukraine and many other countries.

The growing US and European Union influence in Georgia, notably through proposed EU and NATO membership, the US Train and Equip military assistance program and the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, have frequently strained Tbilisi's relations with Moscow. Georgia's decision to boost its presence in the coalition forces in Iraq was an important initiative.^[78]

Georgia is currently working to become a full member of NATO. In August 2004, the Individual Partnership Action Plan of Georgia was submitted officially to NATO. On October 29, 2004, the North Atlantic Council of NATO approved the Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP) of Georgia and Georgia moved on to the second stage of Euro-Atlantic Integration. In 2005, by the decision of the President of Georgia, a state commission was set up to implement the Individual Partnership Action Plan, which presents an interdepartmental group headed by the Prime Minister. The Commission was tasked with coordinating and controlling the implementation of the Individual Partnership Action Plan.

Visit of the Polish President Lech Kaczyński to Georgia. Poland and Georgia maintain close relations.

On February 14, 2005, the agreement on the appointment of Partnership for Peace (PfP) liaison officer between Georgia and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization came into force, whereby a liaison officer for the South Caucasus was assigned to Georgia. On March 2, 2005, the agreement was signed on the provision of the host nation support to and transit of NATO forces and NATO personnel. On March 6–9, 2006, the IPAP implementation interim assessment team arrived in Tbilisi. On April 13, 2006, the discussion of the assessment report on implementation of the Individual Partnership Action Plan was held at NATO Headquarters, within 26+1 format.^[79] In 2006, the Georgian parliament voted unanimously for the bill which calls for integration of Georgia into NATO. The majority of Georgians and politicians in Georgia support the push for NATO membership.

George W. Bush became the first sitting U.S. president to visit the country.^[80] The street leading to Tbilisi International Airport has since been dubbed George W. Bush Avenue.^[81]

From the European commission website: President Saakashvili views membership of the EU and NATO as a long term priority. As he does not want Georgia to become an arena of Russia-US confrontation he seeks to maintain close relations with the United States and European Union, at the same time underlining his ambitions to advance co-operation with Russia.^[73]

On October 2, 2006, Georgian and the European Union signed a joint statement on the agreed text of the Georgia-European Union Action Plan within the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP). The Action Plan was formally approved at the EU-Georgia Cooperation Council session on November 14, 2006 in Brussels.^[82]

On February 2, 2007, Georgia officially became the most recent regional member of the Asian Development Bank. They currently hold 12,081 shares in the bank, 0.341 percent of the total.

Military

Main article: Military of Georgia Georgian troops in Iraq, 2006 Georgian Special Forces

Georgia's military is organized into land, air, maritime, special forces and national guard branches. They are collectively known as the Georgian Armed Forces (GAF). The mission and functions of the GAF are based on the Constitution of Georgia, Georgia’s Law on Defense and National Military Strategy, and international agreements to which Georgia is signatory. They are performed under the guidance and authority of the Ministry of Defense.

Since coming to power in 2004, Saakashvili has boosted spending on the country's armed forces and increased its overall size to around 45,000.^{[citation needed]} Of that figure, 12,000 have been trained in advanced techniques by U.S. military instructors, under the Georgia Train and Equip Program. Some of these troops have been stationed in Iraq as part of the international coalition in the region, serving in Baqubah and the Green Zone of Baghdad.

In May 2005, the 13th "Shavnabada" Light Infantry Battalion became the first full battalion to serve outside of Georgia. This unit was responsible for two checkpoints to the Green Zone, and provided security for the Iraqi Parliament. In October 2005, the unit was replaced by the 21st Infantry Battalion. Soldiers of the 13th "Shavnabada" Light Infantry Battalion wear the "combat patches" of the American unit they served under, the Third Infantry Division.

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Georgia (country) and Agriculture in Georgia (country) Georgian twenty lari note portraying Ilia Chavchavadze, founder of the National Bank of Georgia

Archaeological research demonstrates that Georgia has been involved in commerce with many lands and empires since the ancient times, largely due its location on the Black Sea and later on the historical Silk Road. Gold, silver, copper and iron have been mined in the Caucasus Mountains. Wine making is a very old tradition.

Throughout Georgia's modern history agriculture and tourism have been principal economic sectors, because of the country's climate and topography.^[83]

For much of the 20th century, Georgia's economy was within the Soviet model of command economy.

Since the fall of the USSR in 1991, Georgia embarked on a major structural reform designed to transition to a free market economy. However, as with all other post-Soviet states, Georgia faced a severe economic collapse. The civil war and military conflicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia aggravated the crisis. The agriculture and industry output diminished. By 1994 the gross domestic product had shrunk to a quarter of that of 1989.^[84]

The first financial help from the West came in 1995, when the World Bank and International Monetary Fund granted Georgia a credit of USD 206 million and Germany granted DM 50 million.

As of 2001 54% of the population lived below the national poverty line but by 2006 poverty decreased to 34%. In 2005 average monthly income of a household was GEL 347 (about 200 USD).^[85]

Rkinis Rigi (iron row) in Old Tbilisi

Since early 2000s visible positive developments have been observed in the economy of Georgia. In 2007 Georgia's real GDP growth rate reached 12%, making Georgia one of the fastest growing economies in Eastern Europe.^[83] The World Bank dubbed Georgia "the number one economic reformer in the world" because it has in one year improved from rank 112th to 18th in terms of ease of doing business.^[86] However, the country has high unemployment rate of 12.6% and has fairly low median income compared to European countries.

IMF 2007 estimates place Georgia's nominal GDP at US$10.3 billion. Georgia's economy is becoming more devoted to services (now representing 65% of GDP), moving away from agricultural sector ( 10.9%).^[87]

The country has sizable hydropower resources.

Map of the Baku-Supsa and BTC pipelines through the nation of Georgia. Map of the BTC oil pipeline and South Caucasus gas pipeline.

The 2006 ban on imports of Georgian wine to Russia, one of Georgia's biggest trading partners, and break of financial links was described by the IMF Mission as an "external shock",^[88] In addition, Russia increased the price of gas for Georgia. This was followed by the spike in the Georgian lari's rate of inflation.^{[citation needed]} The National Bank of Georgia stated that the inflation was mainly triggered by external reasons, including Russia’s economic embargo.^[89] The Georgian authorities expected that the current account deficit the embargo would cause in 2007 would be financed by "higher foreign exchange proceeds generated by the large inflow of foreign direct investment" and an increase in tourist revenues.^[90] The country has also maintained a solid credit in international market securities.^[91]

Georgia is becoming more integrated into the global trading network: its 2006 imports and exports account for 10% and 18% of GDP respectively.^[83] Georgia's main imports are natural gas, oil products, machinery and parts, and transport equipment.

Since coming to power Saakashvili administration accomplished a series of reforms aimed at improving tax collection. Among other things a flat income tax was introduced in 2004^[92] As a result budget revenues have increased fourfold and a once large budget deficit has turned into surplus.^[93][94][95]

Georgia is developing into an international transport corridor through Batumi and Poti ports, an oil pipeline from Baku through Tbilisi to Ceyhan, the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) and a parallel gas pipeline, the South Caucasus Pipeline.

Tourism is an increasingly significant part of the Georgian economy. About a million tourists brought US$313 million to the country in 2006.^[96] According to the government, there are 103 resorts in different climatic zones in Georgia. Tourist attractions include more than 2000 mineral springs, over 12,000 historical and cultural monuments, four of which are recognised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites (Bagrati Cathedral in Kutaisi and Gelati Monastery, historical monuments of Mtskheta, and Upper Svaneti).^[97]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Georgia Grapevine Cross of Saint Nino from the 4th century Georgian youth in traditional costumes Ethno-linguistic groups in the Caucasus region 2009.^[98] (newer map)

Georgians are about 83.8%, of Georgia's current population of 4,661,473 (July 2006 est.).^[99] Other major ethnic groups include Azeris, who form 6.5% of the population, Armenians - 5.7%, Russians - 1.5%, Abkhazians, and Ossetians. Numerous smaller groups also live in the country, including Assyrians, Chechens, Chinese, Georgian Jews, Greeks, Kabardins, Kurds, Tatars, Turks and Ukrainians. Notably, Georgia's Jewish community is one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world.

Georgia also exhibits significant linguistic diversity. Within the South Caucasian family, Georgian, Laz, Mingrelian, and Svan are spoken.^[98] South Caucasian groups other than ethnic Georgians often speak their native languages in addition to Georgian. The official languages of Georgia are Georgian and also Abkhaz within the autonomous region of Abkhazia. Georgian, the country's official language, is spoken by 80% of the population, 9% speak Russian, 7% Armenian, 6% Azeri, and 7% other languages.^[83] Georgia's literacy rate is said to be 100%.^[100]

In the early 1990s, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, violent separatist conflicts broke out in the autonomous regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Many Ossetians living in Georgia left the country, mainly to Russia's North Ossetia.^[101] On the other hand, more than 150,000 Georgians left Abkhazia after the breakout of hostilities in 1993.^[102] Of the Meskhetian Turks who were forcibly relocated in 1944 only a tiny fraction returned to Georgia as of 2008.^[103]

The 1989 census recorded 341,000 ethnic Russians, or 6.3% of the population,^[104] 52,000 Ukrainians and 100,000 Greeks in Georgia.^[105] Since 1990, 1.5 million Georgian nationals left.^[105] At least one million immigrants from Georgia legally or illegally reside in Russia.^[106] Georgia's net migration rate is -4.54, excluding Georgian nationals who live abroad. Georgia has nonetheless been inhabited by immigrants from all over the world throughout its independence. According to 2006 statistics, Georgia gets most of its immigrants from Turkey and People's Republic of China.

Today most of the population practices Orthodox Christianity of the Georgian Orthodox Church (83.9%). Religious minorities include Muslims (9.9%); Armenian Apostolic (3.9%); Roman Catholic (0.8%). 0.8% of those recorded in the 2002 census declared themselves to be adherents of other religions and 0.7% declared no religion at all.^[83][107]

Society

Cuisine

Main article: Georgian cuisine

Georgian cuisine and wine have evolved through the centuries, adapting traditions in each era. One of the most unusual traditions of dining is Supra, or Georgian table, which is also a way of socialising with friends and family. The head of Supra is known as Tamada. He also conducts the highly philosophical toasts, and makes sure that everyone is enjoying themselves. Various historical regions of Georgia are known for their particular dishes: for example, Khinkali (meat dumplings), from eastern mountainous Georgia, and Khachapuri, mainly from Imereti, Samegrelo and Adjara.

In addition to traditional Georgian dishes, the foods of other countries have been brought to Georgia by immigrants from Russia, Greece, and recently China.

Education

Georgia's greatest poets Ilia Chavchavadze and Akaki Tsereteli

The education system of Georgia has undergone sweeping modernizing, albeit painful and controversial, reforms since 2004.^[108][109] The adult literacy rate in Georgia is given as 100% (the highest in the world).^[110] Education in Georgia is mandatory for all children aged 6–14.^[111]

The school system is divided into elementary (6 years; age level 6-12), basic (3 years; age level 12-15), and secondary (3 years; age level 15-18), or alternatively vocational studies (2 years). Students with a secondary school certificate have access to higher education. Only the students who have passed the Unified National Examinations may enroll in a state-accredited higher education institution, based on ranking of scores he/she received at the exams.

Most of these institutions offer three level studies: a Bachelor's Programme (3–4 years); a Master's Programme (2 years), and a Doctoral Programme (3 years). There is also a Certified Specialist's Programme that represents a single-level higher education programme lasting for 3–6 years.^[111][112] As of 2008, 20 higher education institutions are accredited by the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia.^[113] Gross primary enrollment ratio was 94% for the period of 2001-2006.^[114]

Religion

Main articles: Religion in Georgia (country) and Religion and religious freedom in Georgia Svetitskhoveli Cathedral, one of the oldest Eastern Orthodox churches in Georgia.^[115] One of the oldest churches in the Christendom, the Jvari church in Mtskheta, Georgia’s ancient capital .^[115]

The Georgian Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church is one of the world's most ancient Christian Churches, founded in the 1st century by the Apostle Andrew the First Called. In the first half of the 4th century Christianity was adopted as the state religion. This has provided a strong sense of national identity that has helped to preserve a national Georgian identity despite repeated periods of foreign occupation and attempted assimilation.

According to the Constitution of Georgia, religious institutions are separate from government and every citizen has the right of religion. However, most of the population of Georgia (83.9%) practices Orthodox Christianity and the Georgian Orthodox Church is an influential institution in the country.^[116]

The Gospel was preached in Georgia by the Apostles, Andrew, Simon the Canaanite, and Matthias. Iberia was officially converted to Christianity in 326^[117] by Saint Nino of Cappadocia, who is considered to be the Enlightener of Georgia and the Equal to Apostles by the Orthodox Church. The Georgian Orthodox Church, once being under the See of Antioch, gained an autocephalous status in the 4th century during the reign of King Vakhtang Gorgasali.^[117]

Religious minorities of Georgia include Russian Orthodox (2%), Armenian Christians (3.9%), Muslims (9.9%), Roman Catholics (0.8%), as well as sizeable Jewish communities and various Protestant minorities.^[83]

Despite the long history of religious harmony in Georgia,^[118] there have been several instances of religious discrimination in the past decade — such as acts of violence against Jehovah's Witnesses and threats against adherents of other "nontraditional faiths" by followers of the defrocked Orthodox priest Vasil Mkalavishvili.^[119]

Sports

Georgia vs. Ireland in the 2007 Rugby World Cup. Main article: Sport in Georgia (country)

Among the most popular sports in Georgia are football, basketball, rugby union, wrestling, and weightlifting. Historically, Georgia has been famous for its physical education; it is known that the Romans were fascinated with Georgians' physical qualities after seeing the training techniques of ancient Iberia.^[120] Wrestling remains a historically important sport of Georgia, and some historians think that the Greco-Roman style of wrestling incorporates many Georgian elements.^[121] Within Georgia, one of the most popularized styles of wrestling is the Kakhetian style. However, there were a number of other styles in the past that are not as widely used today. For example, the Khevsureti region of Georgia has three different styles of wrestling. Other popular sports in 19th century Georgia were polo, and Lelo, a traditional Georgian game later replaced by rugby union.

Gallery of Georgia

Mountain landscape	4th century Jvari monastery in Mtskheta	Gremi Fortress and Church	Ananuri Fortress and church
Famous Georgian vineyards in Kakheti	Tbilisi	The Ushguli is dominated by typical Svan defensive towers, most dating back to the 9th-12th centuries	Gagra
Sokhumi	12th century Fortress of Vardzia	Gudauri	Northern Georgia
11th century King Bagrat's Church	Shiomgvime Monastery	8th century Davidgareja Monastery Complex located in Kakheti border with Azerbaijan	Gremi Kakheti
Soli, Svaneti	Sighnaghi, Kakheti

International rankings

Organization	Survey	Ranking
Institute for Economics and Peace [10]	Global Peace Index[122]	134 out of 144
United Nations Development Programme	Human Development Index	89 out of 182
Transparency International	Corruption Perceptions Index	66 out of 180
World Economic Forum	Global Competitiveness Report	90 out of 133

See also

Main article: Outline of Georgia (country)

• Index of Georgia-related articles

• Communications in Georgia
• Georgian Media
• Georgian people
• Health in Georgia
• Human rights in Georgia
• List of countries by received FDI
• Peoples of the Caucasus
• Public holidays in Georgia
• State decorations of Georgia
• Transport in Georgia

Notes

1. ^ According to Article 1.3 of the Constitution of Georgia.
2. ^ According to Article 8 of the Constitution of Georgia. In Abkhazia, also Abkhazian.
3. ^ ^{a b} CIA Factbook Georgia
4. ^ ^{a b c d} "Georgia". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=915&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=40&pr.y=13. Retrieved 2010-04-21.
5. ^ ^{a b} Georgia may be considered to be in Asia and/or Europe. The UN classification of world regions places Georgia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook [1], National Geographic, and Encyclopædia Britannica also place Georgia in Asia. Conversely, numerous sources place Georgia in Europe such as the BBC [2], Oxford Reference Online [3], Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, and www.worldatlas.com.
6. ^ David M.Lang, A Modern History of Georgia, p. 109
7. ^ Parsons, Robert (2008-01-11), "Mikheil Saakashvili’s bitter victory", openDemocracy.net. Retrieved on 2008-05-21.
8. ^
9. ^ Foreign Policy Strategy 2006-2009, pp. 9-10. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia. Retrieved on 2006-06-27.
10. ^ "World | Europe | West condemns Russia over Georgia". BBC News. 2008-08-26. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7583164.stm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
11. ^ http://lenta.ru/news/2009/09/10/recognize/
12. ^ Resolution of the Parliament of Georgia declaring Abkhazia and South Ossetia occupied territories, August 28, 2008.
13. ^ Abkhazia, S.Ossetia Formally Declared Occupied Territory. Civil Georgia. 2008-08-28.
14. ^ Braund, David. Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562, pp. 17-18
15. ^ History of Modern Georgia, David Marshal Lang, p 18
16. ^ The Complete Works, Jewish Antiquities, Josephus, Book 1, p 57
17. ^ David Marshall Lang, The Georgians, (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1966), 17-18.
18. ^ "St. Nino And The Conversion Of Georgia". Georgianweb.com. http://www.georgianweb.com/religion/stnino.html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
19. ^ Phoenix: The Peoples of the Hills: Ancient Ararat and Caucasus by Charles Burney , David Marshall Lang, Phoenix Press; New Ed edition (December 31, 2001)
20. ^ Phoenix: The Peoples of the Hills: Ancient Ararat and Caucasus by Charles Burney, David Marshall Lang, Phoenix Press; New Ed edition (December 31, 2001)
21. ^ Lives and Legends of the Georgian Saints, St Vladimirs Seminary Pr; N.e.of 2r.e. edition (March 1997) by David Marshall Lang
22. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Christianity and the Georgian Empire" (early history) Library of Congress, March 1994, webpage:LCweb2-ge0015.
23. ^ Sketches of Georgian Church History by Theodore Edward Dowling
24. ^ History of Modern Georgia, by David Marshal Lang, p 29
25. ^ The Georgian Feast, by Darra Goldstein, p 35
26. ^ Georgian Literature and Culture, by Howard Aronson and Dodona Kiziria, p 119
27. ^ Gvosdev (2000), p. 85
28. ^ Avalov (1906), p. 186
29. ^ Gvosdev (2000), p. 86
30. ^ Lang (1957), p. 249
31. ^ Lang (1957), p. 251
32. ^ Lang (1957), p. 247
33. ^ Lang (1957), p. 252
34. ^ Anchabadze (2005), p. 29
35. ^ "Georgia blows up Soviet memorial, two people killed". The Washington Post. December 19, 2009.
36. ^ Socialism in Georgian Colors: The European Road to Social Democracy, 1883-1917 by Stephen F. Jones
37. ^ [4] Georgia/Abchasia: Violations of the laws of war and Russia's role in the conflict, March 1995
38. ^ Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, [5] Russia. The Ingush-Ossetian conflict in the Prigorodnyi region, May 1996.
39. ^ "EurasiaNet Eurasia Insight - Georgia’s Rose Revolution: Momentum and Consolidation". Eurasianet.org. http://eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav112204a.shtml. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
40. ^ Gorshkov, Nikolai (September 19, 2002). "Duma prepares for Georgia strike". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/europe/2269057.stm. Retrieved 2009-07-24.
41. ^ "Russia, Georgia strike deal on bases". Civil Georgia, Tbilisi. May 30, 2005. http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=10007.
42. ^ "Russia Hands Over Batumi Military Base to Georgia". Civil Georgia, Tbilisi. November 13, 2007. http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=16321. Retrieved 2009-07-24.
43. ^ [6] Heavy fighting in South Ossetia (Georgian MLRS launched rockets on Tskhinvali - video), BBC News, August 8, 2008
44. ^ Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Yearbook 2009: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security Oxford University Press, 2009 ISBN 0-19-956606-2, 9780199566068.
45. ^ ^{a b} "Ground zero in the Georgia-Russia war:South Ossetia city's residents are certain Russia is in the right. By Peter Finn,". Washington Post. August 18, 2008. http://articles.sfgate.com/2008-08-18/news/17123137_1_georgian-forces-south-ossetian-tskhinvali.
46. ^ How To Screw Up A War Story: The New York Times At Work By Mark Ames
47. ^ Parfitt, Tom (2008-08-13). "Russia exaggerating South Ossetian death toll to provoke revenge against Georgians, says human rights group | World news | guardian.co.uk". London: Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/aug/13/georgia. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
48. ^ Conclusion of the Investigating Committee of the Russian Prosecutor's Office, 3 July 2009
49. ^ C. J. Chivers and Ellen Barry (6 November 2008). "Georgia Claims on Russia War Called Into Question". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/07/world/europe/07georgia.html. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
50. ^ The West Begins to doubt Georgian leader Der Spiegel, 15 September 2008
51. ^ [7] Georgia Claims on Russia War Called Into Question, NY Times
52. ^ "Russia sends forces into Georgian rebel conflict". Reuters. August 8, 2008. http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL768040420080808. Retrieved 2009-07-24.
53. ^ Harding, Luke (2008-08-13). "Georgian villages burned and looted as Russian tanks advance". London: Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/aug/13/georgia.russia6. Retrieved 2008-01-09.
54. ^ Harding, Luke (2008-08-13). "Russia's cruel intention". London: Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/sep/01/russia.georgia. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
55. ^ http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601100&sid=a6z1.HFQFr4E
56. ^ "Russian military pushes into Georgia". CNN. 2008-08-11. http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/08/11/georgia.russia/index.html. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
57. ^ "Russian President Orders Halt To Military Operations In Georgia". GlobalSecurity.org. 2008-08-12. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2008/08/mil-080812-rferl01.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
58. ^ "Russia hands over control of Georgian buffer zones to EU". RIA Novosti. 9 October 2008. http://en.rian.ru/world/20081009/117637460.html. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
59. ^ 00:52. "RIA Novosti — Russia — Russia fully staffs bases in Abkhazia, S.Ossetia". En.rian.ru. http://en.rian.ru/russia/20081119/118400373.html. Retrieved 2009-05-10.
60. ^ Russia recognised the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia from Georgia, Azerbaijan Business Centre, 2008-08-26. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
61. ^ Resolution of the Parliament of Georgia declaring Abkhazia and South Ossetia occupied territories, 28 August 2008.
62. ^ Abkhazia, S.Ossetia Formally Declared Occupied Territory. Civil Georgia. 2008-08-28
63. ^ Georgia : in the mountains of poetry 3rd rev. ed., Nasmyth, Peter
64. ^ Studies in medieval Georgian historiography: early texts and European contexts, Rapp, Stephen
65. ^ ^{a b} Lang David, Georgians
66. ^ January 7th 2009 (2009-01-07). "Endemic Species of the Caucasus". Endemic-species-caucasus.info. http://www.endemic-species-caucasus.info/. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
67. ^ "Caucasian Spiders » CHECKLISTS & MAPS". Caucasus-spiders.info. http://caucasus-spiders.info/introduction/checklists/. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
68. ^ ^{a b} "Georgia Leader: Country on Right Track". Fox News. 2008-01-07. http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Jan07/0,4670,GeorgiaPresidentialElection,00.html. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
69. ^ Zaza Jgharkava (October 18, 2007). Will a Constitutional Monarchy Be Restored in Georgia?. Georgia Today, Issue #379.
70. ^ Giorgi Lomsadze (December 18, 2007). Time for a King for Georgia?. EurasiaNet Civil Society.
71. ^ "Western observers offer varied judgments on the conduct of the Georgian presidential election and its consequences". Armenian Reporter. 2008-08-01. http://yandunts.blogspot.com/2008/08/western-observers-offer-varied.html. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
72. ^ "Freedom in the World 2008". Freedom House. http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fiw08launch/FIW08Tables.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
73. ^ ^{a b} http://ec.europa.eu/comm/external_relations/georgia/intro/index.htm
74. ^ "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia - Oriental Republic of Uruguay". Mfa.gov.ge. http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=371&lang_id=ENG. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
75. ^ "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia - Visa Information for Foreign Citizens". Mfa.gov.ge. 2009-04-30. http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=386&lang_id=ENG. Retrieved 2009-05-05. (South Korea is on the list of the countries whose citizens do not need a visa to enter and stay on the territory of Georgia for 360 days)
76. ^ "Ministry of Foreignn Affairs of Georgia – Relations between Georgia and the State of Israel". mfa.gov.ge. http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=309&lang_id=ENG. Retrieved 2010-03-28.
77. ^ "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia - Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka". Mfa.gov.ge. http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=379&lang_id=ENG. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
78. ^ "U.S. Announces New Military Assistance Program for Georgia". Civil.Ge. 2001-07-01. http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=8271. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
79. ^ Georgia's way to NATO
80. ^ "Europe | Bush praises Georgian democracy". BBC News. 2005-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4531273.stm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
81. ^ Bush Heads to Europe for G - 8 Summit, The New York Times
82. ^ EU, Georgia Sign ENP Action Plan, Civil Georgia, October 2, 2006.
83. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Georgia, from CIA World Factbook
84. ^ The EBDR country factsheet - [8].
85. ^ The World Bank's Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Program progress report - [9].
86. ^ World Bank Economy Rankings.
87. ^ World Development Indicators 2008, The World Bank. Data on composition of GDP is available at worldbank.org
88. ^ IMF Mission Press Statement at the Conclusion of a Staff Visit to Georgia. June 1, 2007.
89. ^ Central Bank Chief Reports on Inflation. Civil Georgia, Tbilisi. 2007-05-10.
90. ^ Statement by IMF Staff Mission to Georgia, Press Release No. 06/276. December 15, 2006.
91. ^ Sweet Georgia. The Financial Times -
92. ^ The Financial Times - Flat taxes could be a flash in the pan, IMF research says
93. ^ World Bank, World Development Indicators 2008
94. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Georgia
95. ^ Frequently Asked Questions: I.Macroeconomic Environment, investingeorgia.org
96. ^ UNTWO (June 2007). "UNTWO World Tourism Barometer, Vol.5 No.2" (PDF). http://unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/barometer/unwto_barom07_2_en.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
97. ^ Invest in Georgia: Tourism
98. ^ ^{a b} Ethnographic map of the Caucasus
99. ^ This figure includes the territories currently out of the Georgian government's control – Abkhazia and South Ossetia – whose total population, as of 2005, is estimated by the State Department of Statistics of Georgia at 227,200 (178,000 in Abkhazia plus 49,200 in South Ossetia). Statistical Yearbook of Georgia 2005: Population, Table 2.1, p. 33, Department for Statistics, Tbilisi (2005)
100. ^ Literacy statistics for Georgia from UNDP
101. ^ Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, Russia: The Ingush-Ossetian Conflict in the Prigorodnyi Region, May 1996.
102. ^ Statistical Yearbook of Georgia 2005: Population, Table 2.1, p. 33, Department for Statistics, Tbilisi (2005)
103. ^ World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Uzbekistan : Meskhetian Turks. Minority Rights Group International.
104. ^ Georgia: Ethnic Russians Say, "There’s No Place Like Home". EurasiaNet.org. April 30, 2009.
105. ^ ^{a b} Ethnic minorities in Georgia (PDF). Federation Internationale des Ligues des Droits de l'Homme.
106. ^ Georgians deported as row deepens. BBC News. October 6, 2006.
107. ^ http://www.nationmaster.com/country/gg-georgia/rel-religion
108. ^ Georgia purges education system. The BBC News. July 29, 2005.
109. ^ Molly Corso (2005-05-13) Education reform rocks Georgia. Eurasianet.
110. ^ Human Development Report, 2007/2008: Georgia. United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved on 2008-09-02.
111. ^ ^{a b} Education system in Georgia. National Tempus Office Georgia. Retrieved on 2008-09-02.
112. ^ Education institutions. Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia. Retrieved on 2008-09-02.
113. ^ High education institutions. National Tempus Office Georgia. Retrieved on 2008-09-02.
114. ^ Georgia at a glance. World Bank. 2007-07-28.
115. ^ ^{a b} The Early Church, Henry Chadwick, p. 34
116. ^ http://www.nationmaster.com/country/gg-georgia/rel-religion
117. ^ ^{a b} Riassophore, Adrian monk. "A brief history of Orthodox Christian Georgia." Orthodox Word, 2006: p. 11.
118. ^ Spilling, Michael. Georgia (Cultures of the world). 1997
119. ^ "Memorandum to the U.S. Government on Religious Violence in the Republic of Georgia (Human Rights Watch August 2001)". Hrw.org. http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/georgia/georgia_memo_full.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
120. ^ Romans erected the statue of the Iberian King Pharsman after he demonstrated Georgian training methods during his visit to Rome; Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXIX, 15.3
121. ^ Williams, Douglas. Georgia in my Heart, 1999.
122. ^ "Vision of Humanity". Vision of Humanity. http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi/home.php. Retrieved 2010-02-04.

References

• Anchabadze, George: History of Georgia: A Short Sketch, Tbilisi 2005 ISBN 99928-71-59-8
• Avalov, Zurab: Prisoedinenie Gruzii k Rossii, Montvid, S.-Peterburg 1906
• Gvosdev, Nikolas K.: Imperial policies and perspectives towards Georgia: 1760-1819, Macmillan, Basingstoke 2000, ISBN 0-312-22990-9
• Lang, David M.: The last years of the Georgian Monarchy: 1658-1832, Columbia University Press, New York 1957
• Suny, Ronald Grigor: The Making of the Georgian Nation, (2nd Edition), Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1994, ISBN 0-253-35579-6
• Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), Studies In Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts. Peeters Publishers, ISBN 90-429-1318-5

Further reading

• Braund, David (1994) Georgia in Antiquity: a History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC – AD 562 Clarendon Press, Oxford ISBN 0-19-814473-3
• Brook, Stephen Claws of the Crab: Georgia and Armenia in Crisis
• Burford, Tim Bradt Guide: Georgia
• Goldstein, Darra The Georgian Feast: the Vibrant Culture and Savory Food of the Republic of Georgia
• Karumidze, Zurab & Wertshtor, James V. Enough!: The Rose Revolution in the Republic of Georgia 2003
• Kurtsikidze, Shorena & Chikovani, Vakhtang, Ethnography and Folklore of the Georgia-Chechnya Border: Images, Customs, Myths & Folk Tales of the Peripheries, Munich: Lincom Europa, 2008
• Lonely Planet World Guide: Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan
• Nasmyth, Peter Georgia: In the Mountains of Poetry
• Rosen, Roger Georgia: A Sovereign Country in the Caucasus
• Russell, Mary Please Don't Call It Soviet Georgia: a Journey Through a Troubled Paradise
• Shelley, Louise; Scott, Erik & Latta, Anthony, eds. Organized Crime and Corruption in Georgia Routledge, Oxford.
• Steavenson, Wendell Stories I Stole

External links

This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive and inappropriate external links or by converting links into footnote references. (August 2009)

Georgia (country) portal

Find more about Georgia (country) on Wikipedia's sister projects:

Definitions from Wiktionary Textbooks from Wikibooks Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Images and media from Commons News stories from Wikinews Learning resources from Wikiversity

Government

• President of Georgia
• Government of Georgia
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia
• Department of Tourism and Resorts
• American Chamber of Commerce in Georgia
• Chief of State and Cabinet Members

General information

• Georgia entry at The World Factbook
• Georgia at UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Georgia (country) at the Open Directory Project
• Wikimedia Atlas of Georgia
• Topographic Maps from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
• Association of Modern Scientific Investigation - (AMSI)
• Publishing and National Bibliography in Georgia from the University of Illinois Slavic and East European Library

News media

• Caucaz.com, South Caucasus online magazine
• Civil Georgia, daily news about Georgia
• Crisis profile, Georgia, Abkhazia, S. Ossetia From Reuters Alertnet
• Georgian Daily, all the latest news from Georgia and related to Georgia
• NewsGeorgia Google Translation in to English from the NewsGeorgia (Russian Language) site
• Georgia Times, the latest news and articles about Georgia in Russian, English and Georgian

Other

• Georgia (country) travel guide from Wikitravel

Articles Related to Georgia Internal Administrative divisions of Georgia Autonomous republics Abkhazia1 · Adjara Regions Guria · Imereti2 · Kakheti · Kvemo Kartli · Mtskheta-Mtianeti2 · Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti2 · Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti · Samtskhe-Javakheti · Shida Kartli2 City with special status Tbilisi (capital) 1 Now constitutes the Republic of Abkhazia the independence of which has been recognised by Russia, Nicaragua, Venezuela and Nauru. 2 Parts of these regions constitute the Republic of South Ossetia, the independence of which has been recognised by Russia, Nicaragua and Venezuela. Historical regions of Georgia Abkhazia · Adjara · Ertso-Tianeti · Guria · Hereti · Imereti · Javakheti · Kartli · Kakheti · Khevi · Khevsureti · Lechkhumi · Mtiuleti · Meskheti · Pshavi · Racha · Samegrelo · Svaneti · Tao-Klarjeti · Tori · Trialeti · Tusheti Geographic locale Countries and regions of the Caucasus Abkhazia Adygea Adjara Armenia Azerbaijan Chechnya Dagestan Georgia Ingushetia Karachay-Cherkessia Kabardino-Balkaria Krasnodar Krai Nagorno-Karabakh Nakhchivan North Ossetia-Alania Stavropol Krai Countries of Europe Abkhazia1·5 · Albania · Andorra · Armenia2 · Austria · Azerbaijan1 · Belarus · Belgium · Bosnia and Herzegovina · Bulgaria · Croatia · Cyprus2 · Czech Republic · Denmark3 · Estonia · Finland · France1 · Georgia1 · Germany · Greece · Hungary · Iceland · Ireland · Italy1 · Kazakhstan1 · Kosovo5 · Latvia · Liechtenstein · Lithuania · Luxembourg · Macedonia4 · Malta · Moldova · Monaco · Montenegro · Netherlands3 · Nagorno-Karabakh2·5 · Northern Cyprus2·5 · Norway3 · Poland · Portugal3 · Romania · Russia1 · San Marino · Serbia · Slovakia · Slovenia · South Ossetia1·5 · Spain1 · Sweden · Switzerland · Transnistria5 · Turkey1 · Ukraine · United Kingdom3 · Vatican City 1 Has part of its territory outside Europe. 2 Entirely in Western Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe. 3 Has dependencies or similar territories outside Europe. 4 Name disputed by Greece; see Macedonia naming dispute. 5 Is a state with limited international recognition Countries of Western Asia Armenia · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Cyprus · Georgia · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Jordan · Kuwait · Lebanon · Oman · Palestinian Territories (Gaza Strip and West Bank) · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Syria · Turkey1 · United Arab Emirates · Yemen 1 Has part of its territory in Europe. Countries of Asia Afghanistan · Armenia · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Bhutan · Brunei · Burma · Cambodia · People's Republic of China · Republic of China (Taiwan)2 · Cyprus · Egypt3 · Georgia1 · India · Indonesia4 · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan1 · North Korea · South Korea · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives · Mongolia · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia1 · Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Thailand · East Timor (Timor-Leste)4 · Turkey1 · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates · Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen3 For dependent and other territories, see Dependent territory. 1 Partly or significantly in Europe. 2 The Republic of China (Taiwan) is not officially recognized by the United Nations; see Political status of Taiwan. 3 Partly or significantly in Africa. 4 Partly or wholly reckoned in Oceania. Countries bordering the Black Sea Bulgaria · Georgia · Romania · Russia · Turkey · Ukraine International membership and relationships Council of Europe Institutions Secretary General · Committee of Ministers · Parliamentary Assembly · Congress · Court of Human Rights · Commissioner for Human Rights · Commission for the Efficiency of Justice Members Full Albania · Andorra · Armenia · Austria · Azerbaijan · Belgium · Bosnia and Herzegovina · Bulgaria · Croatia · Cyprus · Czech Republic · Denmark · Estonia · Finland · France · Georgia · Germany · Greece · Hungary · Iceland · Ireland · Italy · Latvia · Liechtenstein · Lithuania · Luxembourg · Macedonia1 · Malta · Moldova · Monaco · Montenegro · Netherlands · Norway · Poland · Portugal · Romania · Russia · San Marino · Serbia · Slovakia · Slovenia · Spain · Sweden · Switzerland · Turkey · Ukraine · United Kingdom Observer Canada · Israel · Japan · Mexico · United States · Vatican City Former Czechoslovakia (1991–1992) · Saar (assoc. 1950–1956) 1 Provisionally referred to by the Council of Europe as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"; see Macedonia naming dispute. Member states and observers of the Francophonie Members Albania · Andorra · Armenia · Belgium (French Community) · Benin · Bulgaria · Burkina Faso · Burundi · Cambodia · Cameroon · Canada (New Brunswick • Quebec) · Cape Verde · Central African Republic · Chad · Comoros · Cyprus1 · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic of the Congo · Côte d'Ivoire · Djibouti · Dominica · Egypt · Equatorial Guinea · France (French Guiana • Guadeloupe • Martinique • St. Pierre and Miquelon) · Gabon · Ghana1 · Greece · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Haiti · Laos · Luxembourg · Lebanon · Macedonia2 · Madagascar · Mali · Mauritania · Mauritius · Moldova · Monaco · Morocco · Niger · Romania · Rwanda · St. Lucia · São Tomé and Príncipe · Senegal · Seychelles · Switzerland · Togo · Tunisia · Vanuatu · Vietnam Observers Austria · Croatia · Czech Republic · Georgia · Hungary · Latvia · Lithuania · Mozambique · Poland · Serbia · Slovakia · Slovenia · Thailand · Ukraine 1 Associate member. 2 Provisionally referred to by the Francophonie as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"; see Macedonia naming dispute. Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) Albania Armenia Azerbaijan Bulgaria Georgia Greece Moldova Romania Russia Serbia Turkey Ukraine Black Sea Naval Co-operation Task Group (BLACKSEAFOR) Bulgaria · Georgia · Romania · Russia · Turkey · Ukraine GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development Current members Azerbaijan · Georgia · Moldova · Ukraine Former member Uzbekistan Observers Latvia · Turkey International ties of Georgia Geographical and geopolitical Europe | Eurasia (Caucasus) | Asia (Western Asia) International organisations BSEC • CACO • CDC • CE • CSTO (observer) • EAPC • EBRD • ECE • ESCAP • FAO • GUAM • IAEA • IBRD • ICAO • ICFTU • ICRM • IDA • IFAD • IFC • IFRCS • ILO • IMF • Interpol • IOC • IOM • ISO • ITU • LF (observer) • NACC • OPCW • OSCE • PACE • PFP • UN • UNCTAD • UNESCO • UNIDO • UPU • UNWTO • WHO • WIPO • WMO • WTO National personifications Armenia Mother Armenia Australia Boxing kangaroo Brazil Efígie da República Cambodia Preah Thaong and Neang Neak Canada Johnny Canuck Finland Finnish Maiden (Suomi-neito) France Jacobin · Marianne Georgia Kartlis Deda Germany Deutscher Michel · Germania Greece Athena, "Greece" of Delacroix Iceland Lady of the mountain (Fjallkonan) India Bharat Mata Indonesia Ibu Pertiwi Ireland Erin · Ériu · Hibernia · Kathleen Ni Houlihan Israel Srulik Italy Italia Turrita Japan Amaterasu Malaysia Harimau Malaya · Ibu Pertiwi (East Malaysia) Netherlands de Nederlandse Maagd (Netherlands Maiden) Norway Ola Nordmann Philippines Juan de la Cruz · Juan Tamad Poland Polonia Portugal Efígie da República · Zé Povinho Russia Mother Russia · Russian Bear Sweden Mother Svea Switzerland Helvetia United Kingdom Britannia · Lion and Unicorn John Bull (England) · Dame Wales (Wales) · United States Brother Jonathan · Columbia · Uncle Sam Billy Yank (northern states) Johnny Reb (southern states)

Categories: Georgia (country) | European countries | Southwest Asian countries | Bicontinental countries | Black Sea countries | Caucasus | Eastern Europe | Near Eastern countries | Republics | States and territories established in 1991 | Western Asia

 

 

See Also:

 

What Links Here:

 

Recently Viewed Pages:

• Asia: News
• Chats and Forums: Answers
• Search Terms
• About Us
• Home
• Newsagent
• Reporter: Encyclopedia
• Internet: Encyclopedia
• Consumer: Encyclopedia
• News: Dictionary

 

Most Popular Pages:

• Physics Investigatory Projects: Answers
• Investigatory Projects: Answers
• Physics Investigatory Projects: Blogs
• Chemistry Investigatory Projects: Answers
• Investigatory Project: Answers
• Marijuana: Images
• Georgia (Country): Web Search
• Physics Investigatory Project: Answers
• Anschutz: Answers
• Search Terms

Related 'Georgia (Country)' Searches:

related terms:	South Ossetia	Georgia	Russian Empire	Soviet Union
	Eastern Georgia	Russia	Georgian States	Christianity
	Western Georgia	Georgian Kingdom	Western Asia	Eastern Europe

---

top user searches:	►

---

or search for "Georgia (country)" in:		Web:		The Entire Web	Related Sites	Web Directories
		This Site:		Page Titles	Karr Network Sites*
		News:		Headlines	Weather	Events	Blogs
		Reference:		Encyclopedia	Dictionary	eTexts	Quotes
				Local Map	Answers
		Multimedia:		Images	Videos
		People:		Discussion Groups	Social Networking
		Shopping:		General Merch.	Consumer Opinion	Auctions	Classifieds

 

---

The Entire Web Web Directories Related* Sites Karr Network Sites* Page Titles Headlines Weather Events Blogs Encyclopedia Dictionary eTexts Quotes Answers Local Map Videos Images Social Networking Discussion Groups General Items Auctions Classifieds Consumer Opinion

Sitemap News Dictionary Encyclopedia Blogs Answers Videos Images Shopping Directory More…